energy storage technologies: review

PROCEEDINGS OF THE INSTITUTE OF VEHICLES 2(102)/2015
Adrian Chmielewski1, Kamil Lubikowski2, Stanisław Radkowski3
ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES: REVIEW
1. Introduction
Limited resources of fossil fuels are a good motivation to look for new solutions [1],
including: alternative energy sources. The European Union also motivates its member
states to develop alternative energy sources on their territories [2-4], among others, in
the climate package 3x20. The prospect of 2030 indicates that the energetics-climate
policy of the member states of the European Union regarding respect for energy, will be
continued (27% improvement in energy efficiency, 27% participation of Renewable
Energy Sources in the energy market, as well as limiting by 40% the CO2 emissions,
compared with 1990) [5]. Rational storage of energy is connected with effective energy
management and use. Nowadays, different technologies of energy storage are developed
in the world, the review of which has been presented in this paper.
2. Support programmes for energy storage facilities in Poland
Inspired by the German neighbours, Poland should follow the path of development
and support for the energy storage facilities. This is an optimal solution, which, if
supported with appropriate legal regulations, will allow for more rational energy use
when the energy is sold, for example, to the low-voltage electro grid, or will assure
independence from the network power supply (active prosumers). In Poland, the
National Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Management (Polish: Narodowy
Fundusz Ochrony Środowiska i Gospodarki Wodnej) [6] runs the support programmes
for both, the prosumers (the “Prosumer” programme) and the energy storage facilities
(the “Stork”, in Polish - the “Bocian” programme), which apply for the broadly
understood protection of the atmosphere – Figure 1.
Atmosphere protection
Improvement of air quality
LEMUR – energy efficient public buildings
Loan subsidies for building energy-efficient houses
investments enhancing energy efficiency in small and medium-sized businesses
BOCIAN – distributed renewable energy sources
PROSUMER –subsidising the purchase and assembly of renewable energy sources
micro installations
Fig. 1. Support programmes run by the National Fund for Environmental Protection
and Water Management (NFOŚiGW) in 2015 [6]
1
M.Sc. Eng. Adrian Chmielewski, Research assistant, Institute of Vehicles, Warsaw University of Technology,
e-mail:[email protected]
2
M.Sc. Eng. Kamil Lubikowski, PhD student, Institute of Vehicles, Warsaw University of Technology,.
3
Prof. M.Sc. Eng. Stanisław Radkowski, PhD., Dean of Faculty Automotives and Heavy Machinery Design,
Warsaw University of Technology
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In Figure 1, two programmes the "Prosument" (the “Prosumer”) and "Bocian" (the
“Stork”) have been indicated, particularly important in the context of the development of
civil prosumership in Poland.
The "Prosumer" programme, as has been mentioned in papers [7, 8] focuses on
financing the actions including purchases and assembly of new RES installations and
micro installations designed for production of electric energy, or heat and electric
energy. Financing of the project is granted in the form of a loan with a subsidy (a
subsidy of up to 40%, whereas the loan of 450 000 PLN for the period of completing the
venture, with the interest rate of 1% per year). It should be emphasised that the
“Prosumer” programme enables financing of up to 100% of eligible installation costs.
The beneficiaries of the programme are local authority units, banks, and Regional Funds
for Environmental Protection and Water Management units.
Taking into consideration the energy storage development in Poland, the “Bocian”
(Polish for “stork”) programme is particularly vital. Within the framework of this
programme, the systems and energy storage technologies can be supported, which
accompany the investments connected with RES and µCHP (micro Combined Heat and
Power). The capacity of a storage cannot be higher than 10 times of the power installed
for each of the RES or µCHP sources. The programme includes the support for the heat
storage facilities and electric energy storage facilities. Within the programme it is
possible to acquire the support in the form of a loan of up to 8% of eligible costs of the
venture. The amount of the loan amounts to 40 million PLN and it is granted for the
period of up to 15 years [6].
3. Review of energy storage technologies
As has been mentioned in Chapter 1, an integral element of the development of
distributed generation sources is also the simultaneous development of energy storage
facilities. The distinguishing feature of the energy storage is the possibility of storing the
excess energy and its reuse at any time, when the demand for additional amount of
energy will take place. In the world of science, as well as in industry, many technologies
of energy storage are developed (Figure 2).
Energy Storage Technologies


Mechanical
Pumped

Hydroelectric

Storage (PHS)
Compressed
air
(CAES)
Thermo-chemical
Electrochemical
Reversible cells (BES)
Redox flow batteries

Electric
Capacitors
(C)/super
capacitors (SC)
Superconducting
coils
(SMES)
Chemical
Thermal
Phase-change
type
containers (PCM)
Containers
using
lowtemperature specific heat
LT-TES/
and
hightemperature specific heat
HT-TES


Solar fuels


Fuel
cells
with
hydrogen storage
Fig. 2. Energy storage technologies [9, 10]
In the professional literature, energy storage facilities are often called energy
containers. Depending on the type of the stored energy (mechanical, electrochemical,
electric, thermochemical, chemical, or thermal), the classification of energy storage
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facilities takes place – Figure 2. The most popular energy containers in the world are
pumped storage power plants (Pumped Hydroelectric Storage - PHS), using the potential
energy and the difference of levels of water reservoirs located at various elevations. The
limitation of such a storage type are natural site conditions, because not all regions offer
such possibilities. However, this type of storage is the most frequent solution (about
140 GW, which constitutes 99.31%) – Figure 3.
Fig. 3. Global installations of energy storage connected with the electric grid [11]
Nowadays, the pneumatic energy containers are used more and more often
(Compressed Air Energy Storage - CAES) [9, 10, 12, 13]. In the world, this type of
installations provide 440 MW to the electro grid (Figure 3). Similarly to pumped storage
power plants, the CAES (compressed air energy storage) are capable of generating the
power of over 100 MW. The first installation of this kind was built in Germany in 1978.
The CAES use compressed air, which is pumped at very high pressures [9, 10, 12, 13]
under the surface of the ground (for example, into the salt caverns [12, 13]). When there
is a power demand, the compressed air is delivered to the turbine blades and the electric
energy is generated. The efficiency of the process amounts to 30-50%.
Among the technologies of kinetic energy storing, the so-called flywheels can be
mentioned (Flywheel Energy Storage - FES). The flywheel is placed on the shaft
together with the electric machine. In order to decrease the rolling resistance, magnetic
bearings are used. Additionally, in the space where the flywheel rotates, the vacuum is
created (using the vacuum pump – Figure 3).
The flywheel usually made of steel rotates up to 6000 rpm, however, when it is
made from carbon fiber it can revolve up to 105 rpm [9, 10]. The energy density for the
steel wheel is 5Wh/kg but for the carbon fiber it is 100Wh/kg. It should be stressed that
the carbon fiber is much more expensive than steel.
On a smaller scale, mainly in distributed generation, electrochemical containers are
used, among which reversible cells (among others, sodium-sulphur, lithium-ion, lithiumpolymer, acid-lead, nickel-cadmium, nickel-hydride) can be included. On the cell
electrodes occur reversible chemical reactions involving electrolyte (processes of
charging and discharging of a cell) [14]. Each cell is characterised by rated capacity
(usually the producers provide its value in standard conditions, which means that in
conditions different from standard, the cell will have different practical value). The
detailed mathematical description and simulation model of electromechanical cells
operation was presented in works [15-18].
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The flow batteries [9] are different from traditional electrochemical ones in the
respect of the electrolyte being stored outside the device. During its operation, two types
of electrolyte are pumped to the cells between which a separating membrane is placed.
The flow batteries, as a result of simultaneous reactions of oxidation/reduction during
both, the charging and discharging processes, store energy in the electrolyte solution. In
the case of the Redox type flow battery (Vanadium Redox Flow Battery - VRD)
vanadium is used (V2+/V3+ and V4+/V5+). The charge/discharge process efficiency
according to [10] amounts to about 85%, cell voltage 1.4 V. This type of energy storage
facilities were created among others in: Utah (USA) - 250kW (PacifiCorp), 500kW Japan (SEI) – their main purpose is providing energy to the grid at peak demand. The
operation of zinc-bromine batteries is based on similar principle. In comparison with the
VRD batteries, they have higher cell voltage – 1.8V, and the efficiency of the
charge/discharge cycle 65-75%.
The example of a storage accumulating electric charges in the double electric layer
(Electrochemical Double Layer Capacitors) is a super capacitor. Its capacity ranges
between 16-50µF. In the case of the super capacitor, where conductive carbons with a
porous structure are used, the value of 3000 µF can be obtained, with a single cell
voltage 2.2–2.7V. The high capacity of a super capacitor is connected with a very small
distance between the walls and a large surface of their material, which can reach the
value of 2500m2/g. Usually, the super capacitor is built of two electrodes and a
separator. The ionic charges in the electrolyte (anions and cations) balance each other,
(the ions are evenly distributed in the solution volume), but upon application of an
electric field are diffused to the respective electrodes. For a short time they can power
the appliance with a current of several kiloamperes, which highlights their usefulness in
peak demand for power. The described super capacitors are used by the TVA - company
from the USA, among others, at the start-up of electric DC machines of great power
(even 200kW).
Fig. 4. Power density and energy density for the chosen energy storage
facilities [9, 10]
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Fig. 5. Power and energy per unit of volume for the chosen energy storage
facilities [9, 10]
As results from Figure 4, C /SC (capacitors and super capacitors) have the highest
power density. They also have the greatest power per volume unit (Figure 5). The
highest energy density have fuel cells FC (Figure 4). The lowest power density have
pumped-storage power plants and containers with compressed air (CAES). It should also
be emphasised that the lower the power/energy density, the bigger the energy volume to
be stored (Figure 5).
From the comparison of energy storages power, presented in [9, 10], depending on
their capacity and with possible working times, results that the most reliable in terms of
power supplies (for example, for 1 day) will be pumped-storage plants (PHS) and large
compressed air energy storages (big CAES).
The other example of the energy storage which stores the energy within the
magnetic field is a coil made of superconductive material (Superconducting Magnetic
Energy Storage - SMES). The SMES circuit consists of a coil which is immersed in
liquid helium/nitrogen, through which the obtained temperature value is lower than the
critical temperature of the superconductive coil winding. A cryogenic system is
responsible for the constant maintaining of the low temperature, so-called cryostat with
cryocooler or helium condenser. The cryostat is connected with a vacuum system. The
most frequently used superconducting material is NbTi2 – Niobium-titanium in a copper
or aluminium matrix [19], which cooled to the temperature below 9.2K becomes a
superconductor [9]. Unfortunately, the solutions of this type are very expensive
(10000 $/kWh). Apart from this, a daily self-discharge is about 10-15%, it results among
others in: power flow through a winding which causes the rise of temperature, which in
turn, influences the rise of the superconductor resistance. The time of full discharge lasts
about 1 minute. The advantage of such storage is its very long life, approaching up to
30 years. The power value of SMES storages ranges between 0.1-10 MW.
At present, new technologies connected with the use of artificial or natural
photosynthesis are being developed in order to create solar fuel, e.g. hydrogen, which
was described in detail in [10]. Promising results are also achieved by connecting fuel
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cells (FC) with hydrogen storages [10, 20] rendering the highest energy density among
other energy storages presented in Figure 5. Presently, many academic works are
dedicated to fuel cells [20-24] which work in hybrid systems [20, 21, 25], e.g. with the
Stirling engine [26-28] or ORC (Organic Rankine Cycle) [29]. An example of an energy
storage which stores thermal energy are thermal energy storages described in detail in
[9, 10], very frequently used by heat and power plants e.g. in the peak heat demand.
Most frequently, two types of TES are used, low- and high-temperature [10, 30, 31].
In the construction sector, PCM - phase change materials are more and more frequently
encountered. Salt hydrates are usually used as a phase change material (phase change
temperature approximately 24-26 °C) [10, 30, 31] which can replace traditional air
conditioning in summer providing appropriate thermal comfort (heat absorption
accompanying phase change).
3. Summary
In the first part of the work, the support programmes for RES micro installations and
µCHP, as well as the energy storages were discussed, run by the National Fund of
Environmental Protection and Water Management in Poland. In the second part of the
work, the review of energy storage technologies was presented. Its aim was to
characterise developing trends of energy storages. From the point of view of a prosumer,
the most appropriate energy storages for the generated electric energy from micro
installations will be electrochemical battery energy storages (BES). A micro installation,
according to [32-34] is called a renewable source of energy with an overall installed
electric power not higher than 40 kW which has been connected to the electrical power
network with a nominal voltage lower than 110 kV, or with a total thermal installed
power not higher than 120 kW), or to the µCHP system. Micro cogeneration, according
to the rules of the 2004/8/EC Directive [35] denotes cogeneration of heat and electric
energy or mechanical energy during the same process with maximum power below
50 kWe.
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Abstract
In this work, the currently developed technologies of energy storage have been
presented. The requirements set out for energy storage facilities have also been
discussed. Attention has been drawn to the characteristic features of chosen technologies
devoted to energy storage, including: energy density, power density, as well as the
duration of effective work of such a storage. A selection of criteria determine the choice
of a specific energy storage, among others: environmental threats, high energy/power
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density, price for 1 kWh, and the durability of a device. It should be emphasised that in
the case of PHS and CAES, the additional obstacle in using these types of storage is the
factor of topography. In this work, the support programmes run by the National Fund for
Environmental Protection and Water Management, designed for prosumer micro
installations and energy storage facilities, have also been discussed.
Keywords: Polish support programmes, energy storage, energy
PRZEGLĄD TECHNOLOGII MAGAZYNOWANIA ENERGII
Streszczenie
W niniejszej części pracy przedstawiono obecnie rozwijane technologie
magazynowania energii. Zaprezentowano także wymagania stawiane magazynom
energii. Zwrócono uwagę na cechy charakterystyczne wybranych technologii
magazynowania energii m.in: gęstość energii, gęstość mocy a także czas przez jaki
magazyn może dostarczać energię. Szereg kryteriów do których zalicza się: szkodliwość
dla środowiska, wysoką gęstość energii/mocy, cenę za kWh oraz żywotność determinują
wybór określonego magazynu energii. Należy podkreślić, że w przypadku PHS oraz
CAES dodatkowymi utrudnieniami stosowania tych magazynów są odpowiednie
ukształtowania terenu. W pracy omówiono także programy wsparcia prowadzone przez
Narodowy Fundusz Ochrony Środowiska i Gospodarki Wodnej, które są skierowane dla
mikroinstalacji prosumenckich oraz magazynów energii.
Słowa kluczowe: programy wsparcia, magazynowanie energii, energia
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